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January
in History
* New
Year's Day
- The most celebrated holiday around the world.
January 1, 1502
- Portuguese explorers landed at Guanabara Bay on the coast of South
America and named it Rio de Janeiro (River of January). Today, Rio de
Janeiro is Brazil's second largest city.
January 1, 1660
- Samuel Pepys began his famous diary in which he chronicled life in
London including the Great Plague of 1664-65 and the Great Fire of 1666.
*
January 1, 1776
- During the American Revolution, George Washington unveiled the Grand
Union Flag, the first national flag in America.
January 1, 1788
- The Times, London's oldest running newspaper, published its first
edition.
January 1, 1863
- The Emancipation Proclamation by President Abraham Lincoln freed the
slaves in the states rebelling against the Union.
January 1, 1877
- Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India.
*
January 1, 1892
- Ellis Island in New York harbor opened. Over 20 million new arrivals to
America were processed until its closing in 1954.
January 1, 1901
- The Commonwealth of Australia was founded as six former British colonies
became six states with Edmund Barton as the first prime minister.
January 1, 1942
- Twenty six countries signed the Declaration of the United Nations,
in Washington, D.C., reaffirming their opposition to the Axis powers and
confirming that no single nation would make a separate peace.
January 1, 1958
- The EEC (European Economic Community) known as the Common Market was
formed by Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and The
Netherlands in order to remove trade barriers and coordinate trade
policies.
January 1, 1959
- Fidel Castro seized power in Cuba after leading a revolution that drove
out Dictator Fulgencio Batista. Castro then established a Communist
dictatorship.
January 1, 1973
- Britain, Ireland and Denmark became members of the Common Market (EEC).
January 1, 1975
- During the Watergate scandal, former top aides to President Nixon
including former Attorney General John Mitchell, Domestic Affairs Advisor
John Ehrlichman and Chief of Staff H.R. Haldeman, were found guilty of
obstruction of justice.
January 1, 1979
- China and the U.S. established diplomatic relations, 30 years after the
foundation of the People's Republic.
January 1, 1999
- Eleven European nations began using a new single European currency, the
Euro, for electronic financial and business transactions, with Euro coins
and notes to be issued to the general public by January of 2002.
Participating countries include; Austria, Belgium, Finland, France,
Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal and Spain.
January 2, 1777
- General George Washington defeated the British led by British General
Lord Charles Cornwallis, at Princeton NJ.
January 2, 1811
- The U.S. Senate censured Sen. Thomas Pickering after he had revealed
confidential presidential documents.
January 2, 1960
- In Washington, DC, Senator John F. Kennedy announced his intention to
seek the Democratic presidential nomination.
January 3, 1777
- During the American Revolution, Gen. George Washington defeated the
British at Princeton and drove them back toward New Brunswick.
*
January 3, 1924
- British Egyptologist Howard Carter found the sarcophagus of Tutankhamen
in the Valley of the Kings near Luxor after several years of searching.
January 3, 1946
- An Englishman known during World War II as "Lord Haw Haw" (William
Joyce) was hanged for treason in London. Joyce had broadcast Nazi
propaganda via radio from Germany to Britain during the war.
January 3, 1959
- Alaska was admitted as the 49th U.S. state with a land mass almost
one-fifth the size of the entire lower 48 states.
January 3, 1961
- President Dwight D. Eisenhower broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba
two years after Communist dictator Fidel Castro had seized power and just
weeks before John F. Kennedy was inaugurated as the next president.
January 3, 1990
- Manuel Noriega, the deposed leader of Panama, surrendered to American
authorities on charges of drug trafficking after spending 10 days hiding
in the Vatican embassy following the U.S. invasion of Panama.
*
January 3, 1993
- President George Bush and Russian President Boris Yeltsin signed the
Start-II (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks) Treaty, eliminating about
two-thirds of each country's long range nuclear weapons.
January 4, 1790
- President George Washington delivered the first State of the Union
address.
January 4, 1974
- President Richard Nixon rejected subpoenas from the Senate Watergate
Committee seeking audio tapes and related documents.
January 4, 1999
- The Euro, the new money of 11 European nations went into effect.
January 5, 1919
- The German Workers' Party (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei) was founded
by Anton Drexler in Munich. Adolf Hitler became member No. 7 and changed
the name in April of 1920 to the National Socialist German Workers' Party
(Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei) commonly shortened
to Nazi or Nazi Party.
January 5, 1925
- Nellie Tayloe Ross of Wyoming became the first female governor
inaugurated in the U.S.
January 5, 1968
- Alexander Dubcek became first secretary of Czechoslovakia's Communist
Party. He introduced liberal reforms known as "Communism with a human
face" which resulted in Soviet troops invading Prague to crack down.
January 5, 1972
- President Richard Nixon signed a bill approving $5.5 billion over six
years to build and test the NASA space shuttle.
January 6, 1838
- The first public demonstration of the electric telegraph was given by
its inventor, Samuel Finley Breese Morse, in Morristown NJ.
January 6, 1941
- President Franklin Roosevelt delivered his State of the Union address to
Congress asking for support for the lend-lease program aiding Allies
fighting the Axis powers. Roosevelt also defined four essential freedoms
worth defending; freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want,
and freedom from fear.
January 6, 1990
- Poland's Communist Party disbanded and then reorganized as the Social
Democratic party, an opposition party to Solidarity.
January 7, 1610
- Italian astronomer Galileo discovered Jupiter's four satellites, naming
them Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.
January 7, 1714
- A patent was issued for the first typewriter designed by English
inventor Henry Mill "for the impressing or transcribing of letters singly
or progressively one after another, as in writing."
January 7, 1782
- The first U.S. commercial bank opened as the Bank of North America in
Philadelphia.
January 7, 1989
- Emperor Hirohito of Japan died after a long illness. He had ruled for 62
years and was succeeded by his son, Crown Prince Akihito.
January 7, 1999
- The first presidential impeachment trial in 130 years began as members
of the U.S. Senate were sworn in by Supreme Court Chief Justice William
Rehnquist to decide whether President Clinton should be removed from
office. House prosecutors had delivered two articles of impeachment
charging Clinton with perjury and obstruction of justice.
January 8, 1987
- The Dow Jones industrial average first topped the 2,000 mark.
January 8, 1815
- The Battle of New Orleans occurred as General Andrew Jackson and
American troops defended against a British attack, inflicting over 2,000
casualties. Both sides in this battle were unaware that peace had been
declared two weeks earlier with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent ending
the War of 1812.
January 8, 1908
- The IRT subway line opened, linking the New York boroughs of Brooklyn
and Manhattan.
January 8, 1918
- In the aftermath of World War I, President Woodrow Wilson proposed his
Fourteen Points calling for a reduction of arms, self determination for
governments, and the creation of a League of Nations.
January 8, 1964
- President Lyndon Johnson declared War on Poverty during his State of the
Union message before Congress.
January 8, 1982
- The American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) Company was broken up as a
result of an antitrust suit. AT&T gave up 22 local Bell system companies,
opening the U.S. telephone system to competition.
January 9, 1960
- With the first blast of dynamite, construction work began on the Aswan
High Dam across the Nile River in southern Egypt. One third of the
project's billion dollar cost was underwritten by the Soviet Union. The
dam created Lake Nasser, one of the world's largest reservoirs at nearly
2,000 square miles and irrigated over 100,000 acres of surrounding desert.
The dam was opened in January of 1971 by President Anwar Sadat of Egypt
and President Nikolai Podgorny of the Soviet Union.
January 10, 1776
- Common Sense, a fifty page pamphlet by Thomas Paine, was
published. It sold over 500,000 copies in America and Europe, influencing,
among others, the authors of the Declaration of Independence.
January 10, 1840
- The penny post, whereby mail was delivered at a standard charge rather
than paid for by the recipient, began in Britain, providing a boon to
commerce
January 10, 1861
- In events leading to the U.S. Civil War, Florida became the third state
to secede from the Union.
January 10, 1863
- The world's first underground railway service opened in London, the
Metropolitan line between Paddington and Farringdon.
January 10, 1878
- An Amendment granting women the right to vote was introduced in Congress
by Senator A.A. Sargent of California. The amendment didn't pass until
1920, forty two years later.
January 10, 1912
- The flying boat airplane, invented by Glenn Curtiss, made its first
flight at Hammondsport, New York.
January 10, 1920
- The League of Nations officially came into existence with the goal of
resolving international disputes, reducing armaments, and preventing
future wars. The first Assembly gathered in Geneva ten months later with
41 nations represented. More than 20 nations later joined; however, the
U.S. did not join due to a lack of support for the League in Congress.
January 10, 1946
- The first meeting of the United Nations General Assembly took place in
London with delegates from 51 countries. The U.N. superseded its
predecessor, the League of Nations.
January 10, 1984
- The U.S. and Vatican established full diplomatic relations after a break
of 116 years.
January 11, 1861
- In events leading to the Civil War, Alabama seceded from the Union.
*
January 11, 1964
- The U.S. Surgeon General declared cigarettes may be hazardous to health,
the first such official government report.
January 11, 1990
- In Lithuania, 200,000 persons demanded political independence from the
USSR after visiting Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev publicly warned that
separatism could lead to tragedy. Independence was achieved in September
of 1991, three months before the collapse of the USSR.
January 12, 1932
- Hattie W. Caraway, a Democrat from Arkansas, was appointed to the U.S.
Senate to fill the term of her deceased husband. Later in the year, she
became the first woman elected to the U.S. Senate.
January 12, 1990
- Romania outlawed the Communist Party following the overthrow of Dictator
Nicolae Ceauescu who had ruled for 24 years.
January 12, 1991
- Congress authorized President George Bush to use military force against
Iraq following its invasion of Kuwait.
January 12, 1996
- The first joint American-Russian military operation since World War II
occurred as Russian troops arrived to aid in peacekeeping efforts in
Bosnia.
January 12, 1999
- President Bill Clinton sent a check for $850,000 to Paula Jones
officially ending the sensational sexual harassment legal case that
ultimately endangered his presidency. The president withdrew $375,000 from
his and Hillary Rodham Clinton's personal funds and got the remaining
$475,000 from an insurance policy. The lawsuit had exposed the president's
affair with Monica Lewinsky and resulted in investigations by Independent
Counsel Ken Starr that led to Clinton's impeachment by the House of
Representatives and trial in the Senate.
January 13, 1794
- President Washington approved a measure adding two stars and two stripes
to the American flag, following the admission of Vermont and Kentucky to
the union. (The number of stripes was later reduced to 13 again, which was
just as well, or the flag would have begun to look like shirting.)
January 13, 1898
- French author Emile Zola published J'Accuse, a letter accusing
the French government of a cover-up in the Alfred Dreyfus case. Dreyfus
had been convicted of treason for selling military secrets to the Germans
and had been sent to Devil's Island. As a result of Zola's letter and
subsequent trail, Dreyfus was completely vindicated.
January 13, 1990
- Douglas Wilder of Virginia became the first African American governor in
the U.S. as he took the oath of office in Richmond.
January 14, 1784
- The United States of America became a sovereign nation with the
ratification of the Treaty of Paris, ending the Revolutionary War. The
treaty, which had been signed the previous September by US and English
officials, allowed six months for ratification by the states.
January 14-23, 1943
- President Franklin Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill met at
Casablanca, Morocco, to work on a strategy for concluding World War II. At
the conclusion of the conference, President Franklin D. Roosevelt and
Winston Churchill held a news conference at which Roosevelt surprisingly
announced that peace would come "by the total elimination of German and
Japanese war power. That means the unconditional surrender of Germany,
Italy and Japan."
January 15, 1759
- The world's first public museum opened. After the British government
purchased three large private collections of manuscripts, antique objects,
plants, fossils, minerals, and coins, Parliament passed the British Museum
Act for London in 1753. As a result, the British Museum opened on 15
January 1759 in Montague House, in the Bloomsbury neighborhood of London,
and the current vast building was erected. It originally allowed only
thirty visitors per day, and is now the largest museum in Britain, with
over four million visitors annually. Its treasures include the Rosetta
Stone and the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon.
*
January 15, 1797
- London haberdasher James Hetherington created a new fashion and was
fined £50 for his audacity in wearing his new creation: the top hat.
January 15, 1870
- The first use of a donkey to symbolize the U.S. Democratic Party
appeared in a cartoon in Harper's Weekly, criticizing former secretary of
war Edwin Stanton with the caption, "A Live Jackass Kicking a Dead Lion."
*
January 15, 1920
- Prohibition went into effect in the United States. Selling liquor and
beer became illegal.
January 15, 1973
- Golda Meir became the first Israeli prime minister to visit the Pope.
January 16, 1547
- Ivan the Terrible had himself officially crowned as the first Russian
Czar (Caesar) although he had already ruled Russia since 1533. His reign
lasted until 1584 and brought much needed reforms including a new legal
code and cultural development. However, during his reign he instituted a
campaign of terror against the Russian nobility and had over 3,000 persons
put to death. He also killed his own son during a fit of rage.
January 16, 1773
- Captain James Cook became the first recorded person to cross the
Antarctic Circle.
January 16, 1912
- Robert Scott reached the South Pole only a month after Roald Amundsen.
He and his party, however, perished.
January 16, 1979
- The Shah of Iran departed his country amid mass demonstrations and the
revolt of Islamic fundamentalists led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. The
Shah had ruled Iran since 1941 and had unsuccessfully attempted to
westernize its culture.
January 16, 1991
- The war against Iraq began as Allied aircraft conducted a major raid
against Iraqi air defenses. The raid on Baghdad was broadcast live to a
global audience by CNN correspondents as operation Desert Shield became
Desert Storm.
January 16, 1992
- The twelve year civil war in El Salvador ended with the signing of a
peace treaty in Mexico City. The conflict had claimed over 75,000 lives.
January 17, 1773
- The Resolution, sailing under Captain James Cook, became the
first ship to cross the Antarctic Circle.
January 17, 1945
- During World War II, Warsaw, Poland, was liberated by Soviet troops.
January 17, 1966
- A Hydrogen bomb accident occurred over Palomares, Spain, as an American
B-52 jet collided with its refueling plane. Eight crewmen were killed and
the bomber released its H-bomb into the Atlantic.
January 18, 1778
- Explorer Captain James Cook visited the Hawaiian Islands, calling them
the "Sandwich Islands" in honor of Lord Sandwich, First Lord of the
Admiralty (Yes, the person who gave his name to 'the sandwich'). On his
first visit, the natives thought he was a god. In contrast, when he
returned a year later, he was killed on the beach after arguments with the
native leaders. The state flag of Hawaii is identical to the flag of the
British East India Company that was instrumental in promoting Cook's
voyages.
January 18, 1966
- Robert Clifton Weaver was sworn in as the first African American cabinet
member in U.S. history, becoming President Lyndon B. Johnson's Secretary
of Housing and Urban Development.
January 19, 1966
- Indira Gandhi was elected prime minister of India in succession to Lal
Shastri who had died eight days earlier. She served until 1975 and later
from 1980 to 1984, when she was assassinated by her own bodyguards as she
walked to her office. Her only surviving son, Rajiv, became the next prime
minister. In 1991, he was assassinated while campaigning for reelection
January 19, 1983
- Former Gestapo official Klaus Barbie, known as the "Butcher of Lyon,"
was arrested in Bolivia, South America. He was responsible for deporting
Jewish children from Lyon to Auschwitz where they were gassed. He also
murdered French Resistance leader Jean Moulin and tortured others. He was
exposed by Nazi hunters Serge and Beate Klarsfeld, extradited in 1987,
then convicted by the French and died while in prison.
January 20, 1841
- Hong Kong was ceded by China and occupied by the British.
*
January 20, 1908
- The Sullivan Ordinance barred women from smoking in public facilities in
the United States.
January 20, 1945
- Franklin Delano Roosevelt was inaugurated to an unprecedented fourth
term as president of the United States. He had served since 1933.
January 20, 1981
- Ronald Reagan became president of the United States at the age of 69,
the oldest president to take office. During inauguration celebrations, he
announced that 52 American hostages that had been seized in the U.S.
embassy in Tehran were being released after 444 days in captivity.
January 20, 1996
- Yasir Arafat became the first democratically-elected leader of the
Palestinian people with 88.1 percent of the vote.
*
January 21, 1790
- Joseph Guillotine proposed a new and more humane method of execution: a
machine designed to cut off the condemned person's head as painlessly as
possible.
*
January 21, 1793
- Louis XVI, King of France, was guillotined in Place de la Révolution.
The location is now called the Place de la Concorde.
January 21, 1846
- The first issue of the Daily News, edited by Charles Dickens, was
published.
January 21, 1924
- Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin died of a brain hemorrhage. He led the
Bolsheviks to victory in the October Revolution of 1917 and had then
established the world's first Communist government. Lenin's body was
placed in a tomb in Red Square in Moscow and was a much venerated national
shrine until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
*
January 21, 1954
- The USS Nautilus, the world's first nuclear powered submarine,
was launched at Groton, Connecticut.
*
January 21, 1976
- The Concorde supersonic jet began passenger service with flights from
London to Bahrain and Paris to Rio de Janeiro. The Concorde cruises at
twice the speed of sound (Mach 2) at an altitude up to 60,000 feet.
January 22, 1973
- Abortion became legal in the U.S. The Supreme Court announced its
decision in the case of Roe vs. Wade striking down local state laws
restricting abortions in the first six months of pregnancy. In more recent
rulings (1989 and 1992) the Court upheld the power of individual states to
impose some restrictions.
January 23, 1849
- Elizabeth Blackwell was awarded her MD by the Medical Institute of
Geneva, New York, thus becoming America's first woman doctor.
January 23, 1907
- Charles Curtis of Kansas became the first person of American Indian
ancestry to serve in the U.S Senate. He later served as vice president
under President Herbert Hoover from 1929-33.
January 23, 1937
- In Moscow, 17 leading Communists went on trial accused of participating
in a plot led by Leon Trotsky to overthrow Stalin's regime and assassinate
its leaders. After a seven day trial, 13 of them were sentenced to death.
Trotsky fled to Mexico where he was assassinated in 1940.
January 23, 1968
- The USS Pueblo was seized by North Koreans in the Sea of Japan
amid claims the ship was spying. The ship was confiscated and the crew
held in captivity until December, with one fatality.
January 24, 1848
- James W Marshall discovered a gold nugget at Sutter's Mill in northern
California. An announcement by President Polk later in the year caused a
national sensation and resulted in a flood of "Forty-niners" seeking
wealth.
January 24, 1895
- Hawaii's monarchy ended as Queen Liliuokalani was forced to abdicate.
Hawaii was then annexed by the U.S. and remained a territory until
statehood was granted in 1959.
January 24, 1965
- Winston Churchill (1874-1965) died. He had been Britain's wartime prime
minister whose courageous leadership and defiant rhetoric had fortified
the English during their long struggle against Hitler's Germany. "I have
nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat," he stated upon
becoming prime minister at the beginning of the war. He called Hitler's
Reich a "monstrous tyranny, never surpassed in the dark, lamentable
catalogue of human crime." Following the war, he coined the term "Iron
Curtain" to describe the barrier between areas in Eastern Europe under
Soviet control and the free West.
January 24, 1972
- Japanese soldier Shoichi Yokoi was discovered on Guam after he had spent
28 years hiding out in the jungle not knowing World War II had long since
ended.
January 25, 1915
- Alexander Graham Bell in New York and Thomas Watson in San Francisco
made a record telephone transmission.”
This ‘telephone’ has too many shortcomings to be seriously considered
as a means of communication. The device is inherently of no value to us."
Western Union internal memo, 1876
January 25, 1947
- Gangster Al Capone, who once controlled organized crime in Chicago, died
in Miami at age 48 from syphilis.
*
January 25, 1959
- An American Airlines Boeing 707 made the first scheduled
transcontinental U.S. flight, flying from California to New York.
January 25, 1961
- President John F. Kennedy conducted the first live televised
presidential news conference, five days after taking office.
January 26, 1788
- The British established a settlement at Sydney Harbor in Australia as 11
ships with 778 convicts arrived, setting up a penal colony to relieve
overcrowded prisons in England.
January 26, 1943
- Nazis began using Hitler Youth to operate anti-aircraft batteries in
Germany following heavy Allied bombing of Berlin and other cities.
January 26, 1994
- Romania became the first former Cold War foe to join the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO) following the collapse of the Soviet Union.
January 26, 1998
- President Bill Clinton made an emphatic denial of charges he had a
sexual affair with Monica Lewinsky and had advised her to lie about it.
"...I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss Lewinsky.
January 27, 1945
- The Soviet army liberated Auschwitz death camp near Krakow in Poland,
where the Nazis had systematically murdered an estimated 2,000,000
persons, including 1,500,000 Jews.
*
January 27, 1967
- Three American astronauts were killed as fire erupted inside Apollo 1
during a launch simulation test at Cape Kennedy, Florida.
January 27, 1973
- U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War ended as North Vietnamese and
American representatives signed an agreement in Paris. The U.S. agreed to
remove all remaining troops within 60 days thus ending the longest war in
American history. Over 58,000 Americans had been killed, 300,000 wounded
and 2,500 declared missing.
January 28, 1807
- London became the world's first city to be illuminated by gaslight, when
the lamps on Pall Mall were lit.
January 28, 1915
- The US Coast Guard was created by an Act of Congress to fight contraband
trade and aid distressed vessels at sea. It absorbed the US Life saving
service and the US Revenue Cutter Service.
January 28, 1935
- Iceland became the first country to legalize abortion.
January 28, 1963
- African American student Harvey Gantt entered Clemson College in South
Carolina, the last state to hold out against integration.
*
January 28, 1986
- The U.S. Space Shuttle Challenger exploded 74 seconds into its
flight, killing seven persons, including Christa McAuliffe, a teacher who
was to be the first ordinary citizen in space.
January 29, 1848
- Greenwich Mean Time was adopted by Scotland.
January 29, 1891
- Hawaii proclaimed Liliuokalani as its queen. Renowned for her song
Aloha Oe, she had a reign of only four years until she was forced to
abdicate in 1895 under pressure from powerful businessmen.
January 29, 1916
- During World War I, the first bombings of Paris by German zeppelins took
place.
*January 29, 1919
- The 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (Prohibition Amendment) was
ratified. For nearly 14 years, until December 5, 1933, the manufacture,
transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages was illegal in the United
States. The Amendment had the unexpected result of causing enormous growth
of organized crime which provided bootleg liquor to thirsty Americans.
January 30, 1815
- The Library of Congress, destroyed by Crown Forces in 1814, was restored
by the purchase of Thomas Jefferson's personal library for $23,940. The
new collection of 6,487 volumes included more than twice as many books as
the former library, in a much wider range of fields.
January 30, 1835
- President Andrew Jackson survived the first assassination attempt on a
U.S. President. While leaving the House of Representatives Chamber, an
insane would-be assassin fired two pistol shots at him, however both
pistols misfired and the president was unharmed.
January 30, 1933
- Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul von
Hindenburg.
January 30, 1948
- Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated in New Delhi, India, by a religious
fanatic. Gandhi had ended British rule in India through nonviolent
resistance. "Non-violence is not a garment to be put on and off at will.
Its seat is in the heart, and it must be an inseparable part of our very
being," he stated in 1926.
January 30, 1972
- In Londonderry, Northern Ireland, 13 Roman Catholics were killed by
British troops during a banned civil rights march. The event became known
as Bloody Sunday.
January 30, 1973
- During the Watergate scandal, Gordon Liddy and James McCord were
convicted of burglary, wire-tapping and attempted bugging of the
Democratic headquarters inside the Watergate building in Washington, DC
January 30, 1992
- Argentina allowed access to numerous files of Nazis who had fled to
South America from Germany after World War II, thus aiding the hunt for
Nazi war criminals.
January 31, 1858
- The Great Eastern, the innovative five-funneled steamship designed by
Isambard Kingdom Brunel, was launched at Millwall on the Thames.
January 31, 1943
- German troops surrendered at Stalingrad, marking the first big defeat of
Hitler's armies. The captured Germans were forced to march to Siberia,
with few ever returning to Germany.
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